made. Commands were given on pain of death. The Nazis demanded that their orders be carried out to the letter; no deviation, however minute, was permitted. Since the German authorities frequently changed, their replacements would often impose new standards in the ghetto, sometimes contradicting those of their predeces- sors. Things that had been satisfactory to one adminis- tration became unacceptable to the next. The Judenrat and the Jewish community it represented found them- selves in a constant uphill battle to appease the whims of the Nazi masters. The uninterrupted barrage of ordinances, regula- tions, requisitions and the like emanating from the Ger- man command center on an hourly basis threatened to inundate the Judenrat. Its function under these condi- tions was to remain eternally vigilant, anticipating what might come next. At times its members sensed it was best to swallow a bitter pill. At other times they exer- cised whatever influence they could to modify an edict. The confiscatory contributions the Nazis demanded from the Jews in the amount of five million rubles, five kilos of gold and three hundred kilos of silver taxed the Judenrat’s resourcefulness to the limit. People had to give up their last bit of money to satisfy the quota imposed on the public-at-large. At the end, when eve- ryone had been cleaned out, the Judenrat was able to bargain the Nazis down two million rubles, thereby ful- filling the requirement. Thanks to the uncanny diplomatic skills of the Judenrat, the decree to build and move into the ghetto was implemented with a lot less difficulty than had been expected. The council succeeded in negotiating for a larger, more spacious ghetto in a better part of Bialy- stok. The deadline for moving into the ghetto was extended and the ten million rubles demanded for not cleaning up the abandoned homes were waived. The Judenrat insisted on public calm and patience through- out this horrible ordeal. The Jewish Police in the Ghetto The Nazi authorities declared that the ghetto was a State within a state and that the Judenrat had unlimited powers if only it fulfilled the orders of the regime. Ostensibly this meant that the Germans had no interest whatsoever in interfering in ghetto affairs, leaving everything to the discretion of the Judenrat. This was, of course, untrue. The council immediately created its own police force of more than two hundred young, healthy men under the command of Izak Markus, former fire com- missioner. Later, Mojsze Berman was appointed his assistant. The police received special shields for their hats and arm bands to identify them. The ghetto was divided into four police precincts under a unified com- mand. It was indeed difficult for the Judenrat to main- tain the unpaid police officers at the highest level of efficiency and, not infrequently, there were police fail- 72 ures. Generally speaking, however, the apparatus worked quite well and if the ghetto did not drown in filth and the people did not trample upon one another in the streets,-the credit had to go to the police. Their main function was to preserve law and order, ensuring free passage and keeping Jewish passersby away from the Nazi soldiers. In addition, the police were responsible for public sanitation, regulating busi- ness activities, assisting the German guards at the gates of the ghetto to prevent smuggling, and issuing sum- monses for forced labor and evacuation. The Jewish police were, of course, also charged with preventing robberies and arresting perpetrators, detaining culprits in a makeshift cell underneath the Judenrat building or in a real prison at another loca- tion. Sometimes the police were required to deliver a suspect to the Gestapo outside the ghetto. Another problem facing the police was that food provisions allotted each Jew were inadequate to sustain life. People were forced to barter, smuggle, speculate and seek additional income. The Jewish police officer could look the other way, if his palm were greased, or he might strictly invoke the law, which could be fatal to the violator. This corruption demoralized the popula- tion, and virtual anarchy prevailed for a while. The Judenrat did ultimately purge the police force of undesirable elements. At the same time, it exhorted the people to obey the policemen and to treat them with respect. The Judenrat did everything possible to create an effective and honest force, recruiting as many ideal- istic and honest young men as it could. To the extent possible the Judenrat organized a satisfactory criminal justice system, appointing profes- sional judges to preside over trials that were carried out according to law. Punishments were meted out in light of ghetto conditions. Other Judenrat Departments Finance — was responsible for collecting the neces- sary funds to carry out the orders of the Nazi com- mand. It formulated a budget to husband resources and provide a clear outline of expenditures. It imposed taxes upon those with means and controlled revenues gener- ated by work outside the ghetto.

Rationing — the Judenrat assumed the responsibil- ity of apportioning scarce food rations among the Jew- ish population. This was a particularly difficult task, upon whose success depended many thousands of lives. The council made herculean efforts to obtain food and distribute it as equitably as possible. Often, some peo- ple had to go hungry. But everything humanly possible was done to provide sustenance for the greatest number. The Rationing Department fed not only indi- viduals but supplied the remaining social institutions as well. It also controlled heating supplies. Labor — this department had the burden of meet- ing the slave labor quotas set by the Nazi command. The Bialystoker Memorial Book