Neuvelt Bet Midrash (house of study) in ruins. From the outset, these manpower demands were capri- cious and virtually impossible to fulfill, usually accom- panied by an absurd deadline of a couple of hours. The types of work were mostly back-breaking and intolera- ble. The slave laborers were brutally beaten for the slightest infraction. Frequently the work hours were interminable and the locations remote and rugged. No complaints or refusals were permitted; no excuses were accepted. This department was one of the most difficult to operate in the ghetto. Charity — The Judenrat made major efforts to assist the impoverished. As soon as the council began organizing its funds, it established an old age home for about two hundred elderly people and invalids; two children’s homes, which took care of infants as well as older youngsters; and kitchens offering hot meals at a pittance. Orthodox Jews took the initiative of forming their own kosher kitchen. Health and Sanitation — the Judenrat established a hospital for acutely ill adults and a second facility to accommodate sick children. A third hospital took care of contagious patients. This department was also responsible for sanitation and hygiene throughout the ghetto. The Linas Hatzedek building housed a unit for treating ambulatory patients, staffed by a large number of doctors. Dental and therapy services were provided in the Linas Cholim building. In addition, an obstetrical section was created, which, surprisingly, was used a great deal. Each factory had its own doctors and nurses who administered treatment on the spot. The Sanitation Department operated a number of public baths. The Nazis, who crammed the large Jewish population into pigsty conditions, paradoxically required absolute cleanliness, so as not to infect the Aryan German race. In this Bialystok distinguished itself. For example, there was not one case of typhus reported. Any infectious dis- ease that did occur, probably originating outside the ghetto, was promptly isolated, entire streets in the ghetto quarantined until the contagion was eradicated. Housing — this responsibility was difficult, for by The Bialystoker Memorial Book definition, the Judenrat had to house thousands of peo- ple in a limited number of dwellings. Their first step was to assume jurisdiction over all privately owned homes. No one was permitted to Occupy a room with- out a written order from the Housing Department. Those who did so without authorization were forcibly ejected by the police. Every effort was made to obtain the mutual agreement of people to live together as neighbors. Nevertheless, there was much unhappiness, and many disputes broke out. This department also car- ried out building inspections and supervised the collec- tion of rents. Economy — this was the section that gathered the precious possessions of the Jews in response to Nazi extortion demands and as leverage to mitigate the strictness of certain orders. In addition to jewelry and other valuables, all kinds of items were stocked so the Judenrat could respond at once to a German requisition for supplies. Construction — although there was no need to con- struct new buildings in the ghetto, existing structures required maintenance. This work was supervised by the Construction Department of the Judenrat. Culture — one of the most noble of the Judenrat’s functions was creating a school system through its Cul- ture Department. Two schools were established, one a secular facility that taught in both Yiddish and Hebrew, and the second a religious school. The secular school was coeducational and accommodated about 1600 pu- pils in six grades and thirty-nine classes. The religious school taught about five hundred children in two shifts, but segregated boys and girls. These institutions brought a bit of light into the ghetto, not permitting the children to run wild and at the same time educating them in the spirit of Judaism. In November 1942, when the Nazis carried out bloody reprisals against the Jews of Greater Bialystok, outside the ghetto itself, its terri- tory was reduced and the two schools closed. The Cul- ture Department also conducted vocational courses to teach young people trades. Census and Vital Statistics — This department was crucial in counting the number of people in the ghetto. Their statistics had a direct effect on the issuance of food permits and rations. The census office was in a small room on the third floor of the Judenrat building under Dr. M. Bergman’s direction. This bureau issued bread ration cards to the people and compiled various lists required by the authorities. Dr. Pilecki, statistician, administered the vital statistics department. 5. Rawet directed the Bureau of Records.